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lay judge

lay judge 非职业法官 指不具备法律资格或未经法律培训而行使司法职能,或与受过训练的法官一同行使司法职能的人员。非职业法官在不同的法律系统中行使司法职能的方式也不同,主要有两类:一是一名非职业法官独自或几名非职业法官共同行使司法职能;二是非职业法官作为法庭顾问〔assessor〕或陪审法官与一名或几名职业法官共同行使司法职能。所以,在英国治安法院的非职业法官具有广泛的司法权,而且可以与职业法官一起在刑事法院审理对治安法院的判决提起上诉的案件。而在法国、德国和北欧的一些国家,职业法官与非职业法官组成混合法庭共同审理各种案件。此外还有一种非专业人员参与司法活动的典型形式,就是陪审团。但是陪审员在法庭上的任务只是查明案件事实 ,而不能称其为法官,其职责与正式的非职业法官不同。

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judge

judge n. 法官 根据法律在法院审理和裁决案件、行使司法权的司法官员。英格兰的法官体系等级森严,而且许多法官可以流动。按照等级由高到低,英格兰的法官可分为以下几类:1御前大臣(也称大法官〔Lord Chancellor〕),为英格兰首席法律官员,同时身兼内阁成员及上议院议长;2皇家首席大法官〔Lord Chief Justice,简称为LCJ〕,为上诉法院刑事庭庭长,兼任高等法院王座庭的庭长;掌卷法官〔Master of the Rolls〕,简称「MR」,即上诉法院民事庭庭长;3上议院常任上诉法官〔Lords of Appeal in Ordinary〕,简称为Lord;4上诉法院法官〔Lord Justices of Appeal〕,简称为LJ;5高等法院法官〔High Court Judge〕,简称为J,有时也被称为普通法官〔Puisne Judge〕;高等法院设三个分庭,其中王座庭由皇家首席大法官主持,衡平庭由副大法官〔Vice-Chancellor,简称V-C〕主持,家事庭由家事庭庭长〔President of the Family Division〕主持;6巡回法官〔Circuit Judges〕,可在刑事法院和郡法院审理案件;7记录法官〔Recorders〕,可在刑事法院和郡法院审理案件;8地区法官〔District Judges〕,旧称「District Registrars」,可在郡法院审理某些案件;9治安法官〔Magistrates〕,又分为两种,一种是领薪治安法官〔Stipendiary Magistrates〕,从有经验的出庭律师或事务律师中选任;另一种是非职业治安法官〔Lay Magistrates〕,也称「Justices of the Peace」,不领薪,从无法律专业知识的普通人中选任。英国的法官通常都从有一定执业经验的出庭律师中选任,如具有10年以上执业经验的出庭律师才有可能被任命为高等法院法官,但事务律师有可能被任命为记录法官,以后还可升任巡回法官。高等法院法官以及更高级别的法官只有经过议会两院的同意方可被免职。美国宪法中没有规定法官的资格,也没有规定法官必须从律师中产生,但事实上所有联邦法官及最高法院大法官大都是律师界人物;而且美国的法官都固定配属于某个法院,这一点与英国的法官可以在不同法院间流动不同。在法官的产生上,美国存在任命制和选举制两种形式,即联邦的法官是任命的,各州法官通常是选举的,但也有某些州的法官由州立法机关或州议长任命。联邦法官一般均为终身职,除因「行为不端」等受国会弹劾外,不得免职。judge与justice在少数情况下可作为同义词互换使用,如美国最高法院大法官〔Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States〕在宪法中即被称为最高法院法官〔Judges of the Supreme Court〕。但作为一般规则来说,这两个词是不完全相同的,对法官的通称是judge,并且它包括了justice,但在一般语境中,justice不包括judge。在美国,对某一司法区中最高审级的法官通常称为justice,而对初审和中间上诉审的法官称为judge(但也有少数州例外,如纽约州初审法院的法官称justice,而上诉审法官称judge;在得克萨斯州,中间上诉法院的法官称justice,而在初审法院及最高审级的刑事法院,即刑事上诉法院中的法官称judge)。不过这种区分也不是绝对的,在具体情况下究竟使用哪一个词并不存在统一的依据,多数是因袭长期的或地方上的习惯,或由于宪法或制定法的强化。

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cognitio extraordinaria

cognitio extraordinaria (kog-nish-ee-oh ek-stror-di-nair-ee-[schwa] or ek-str[schwa]-or-). [Latin] Roman law. A type of legal proceeding, arising at the beginning of the Empire, in which a government official controlled the conduct of a trial from beginning to end, as opposed to the earlier formulary system in which a magistrate shaped the issues and then turned the issues

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praetor

praetor (pree-t[schwa]r), n. [Latin] Roman law. The magistrate responsible for identifying and framing the legal issues in a case and for ordering a lay judge (judex) to hear evidence and decide the case in accordance with the formula. See FORMULA(1). praetor fideicommissarius (pree-t[schwa]r fI-dee-I-kom-[schwa]-sair-ee-[ schwa]s). A special praetor having jurisdiction over cases involving trusts.

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sandbagging

sandbagging, n. 1. A trial lawyer’s remaining cagily silent when a possible error occurs at trial, with the hope of preserving an issue for appeal if the court does not correct the problem. • Such a tactic does not usu. preserve the issue for appeal because objections must be promptly made to alert the trial

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ratio decidendi

ratio decidendi (ray-shee-oh des-[schwa]-den-dI), n. [Latin “the reason for deciding”] 1. The principle or rule of law on which a court’s decision is founded (many poorly written judicial opinions do not contain a clearly ascertainable ratio decidendi). 2. The rule of law on which a later court thinks that a previous court founded its decision;

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complainant

complainant (k[schwa]m-playn-[schwa]nt). 1. The party who brings a legal complaint against another; esp., the plaintiff in a court of equity or, more modernly, a civil suit. “A suit in equity, under the procedure of the English Court of Chancery, which was generally adopted in the American States prior to the code, is instituted by the

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